Organoids as platforms for infectious disease research

Endemic and emerging infectious diseases pose major public health, economic and societal challenges. To advance our understanding of infectious disease pathophysiology and develop effective interventions, experimental models are required that closely mimic human biology. In particular, organoid platforms have begun to address key limitations of 2D cell line cultures and animal models in infectious disease research. In this Review, we explore the diverse applications of human organoids in investigating organ-specific infections and disease manifestations across major physiological systems, including the respiratory, digestive, nervous, cardiovascular, integumentary, urinary, reproductive and lymphatic systems, with a primary emphasis on viral pathogens. We further discuss the importance of immune-competent and vascularized organoids for modelling complex host–pathogen interactions, and we examine organoid-on-a-chip platforms as tools to investigate dynamic processes and inter-organ mechanisms. In addition, we outline how organoid technologies can support vaccine and therapeutic development, enable the study of zoonotic transmission and contribute to pandemic preparedness. Finally, we underscore key priorities for the field, including enhancing tissue-like complexity and maturity, improving standardization, and increasing the scalability and throughput of organoid models.